Fossils Vertebra
Paleo Quest black water scuba diving, fossil whale atlas vertebra
Neanderthal Achievments
Many of the characteristics that are traditionally used to identify Neanderthals can rarely be present in modern day humans and to a greater extent among archaic Homo sapiens, who roamed Eurasia, Africa and Australia prior to 30000 BCE. Neanderthals can not be identified by a single morphological feature. If a hominid has a significant number of Neanderthal type traits, which do not exclusively belong to Neanderthals, then that individual is deemed to be a Neanderthal. This technique is not infallible and revisions to classification have been made in the past. One of the early Homo sapiens skulls from Skhul Cave in Israel [ca 120-80 BCE], was initially considered to be a Neanderthal. When partial, poorly preserved human remains are recovered, it can be difficult and sometimes impossible to differentiate between the two types of people. Genetic analysis has revealed the presence of a third human type in Asia, who appears to pre-date the Neanderthals. We have no information about the cranial and post cranial morphology of the Denisovans. This has introduced an unknown factor into the equation. Neanderthal morphology can vary appreciably between individuals. Neanderthals in the Levant ca 70Ka ago were taller than the "classic" Neanderthals in SW France and more closely resembled Homo sapiens than their counterparts in France. Hybrids can further complicate endeavours to distinguish between human types.
Primitive characteristics that Neanderthals have in common with their ancestors include a low, elongated skull; heavy brow ridges; large faces; a big nasal aperture and the absence of a chin. They had long sloping foreheads, and their brain case had an occipital bone [bun] projecting from the back of the skull. A number of Levant Neanderthal crania did not have an occipital "bun". Homo sapiens can have an occipital "bun", but it evolved differently. Most Neanderthals have a retromolar space between the third and last molar. The most remarkable feature of the Neanderthal mandibular molars is the wide, deep, interior fovea, that is bordered mesially by a low mesial margin and distally by a continuous mid-trigonid crest. Neanderthals thumbs vary in shape from most present day people and the toe beside the big toe was often longer than the big toe. Neanderthals generally had greater facial prognathism than the ancient Skhul/Qufzeh Homo sapiens.
Small bands of Neanderthals occupied the lands between England and the Okladnikov cave in southern Siberia [Krause,2007].The Late Pleistocene partial hominid calvarium at the Salkhit site in NE Mongolia is reported to have some features,which align with Neanderthals [Coppens,2008].During favourable climatic conditions they utilized camp sites between the Mediterranean Sea coast and Finland.They usually retreated to warmer refugia during prolonged cold spells.Prior to the Chatelperronan era [ca 44Ka],their lithic knapping skills and other cultural achievements were not radically different from coeval Homo sapiens.However their innovations were frequently not widely disseminated over their extensive territories,which a relatively low population occupied.Moreover children constituted a high proportion of interments at many burial sites [eg: La Ferraissie,6 of 8;Amud 10 of 15].The high child mortality rate and the dispersal pattern of the Neanderthal population were among the many factors,which contributed to their physical,but not genetic demise.These factors varied regionally and temporally
Preservation of bone and wood artifacts prior to 44Ka is generally low.There is evidence that Neanderthals utilized both materials prior to 100Ka.A 2.4 m yew wood spear,with a fire harden tip [ca 130?Ka] was found in an elephant skeleton at Lehingen,Germany. Microscopic analysis revealed that Mousterian tools were used to work wood at Hounslow,Germany,where a Levallois point was found embedded in a mammoth fossil.An antler club and expertly shaped,mammoth bone,barbed point were unearthed at Salzgitter-Lebensted,Germany.In number of Spanish Mousterian layers some bones appear to have been precussion flaked [J Reitner,2006].Bones belonging to the Aythyna genus of diving duck were retrieved from the Bolomar cave by Tavernes,Valennia,Spain. The bones were defleshed and burnt at the extremities with human teeth marks on the limb bones.The capture of feral ducks ca 150?Ka ago entailed considerable skill [R Blasco,2009].
Neanderthal Middle Palaeolithic stone tools were frequently made from flake blanks and tended to be dominated by side scrapers,notches and denticulates.Upper Palaeolithic Homo sapiens technologies were often blade/bladelet oriented,with numerous end scrapers,burins and a higher incidence of formalized tools [G Clark,2006].However Early/Middle Palaeolitic blade dominated assemblages have been reported at more than ten European sites [eg;the Crayford site,SE England;Ameloot-van der Heijdeng,1993].The Selin site [Pas de Calais;estimated TL date ca 90Ka] yielded prismatic blades with detachments extending around most of or all of the plaform and standardized blades,that were not radically different from those that were manufactured during the Upper Palaeolithic.Neanderthals sporadically produced blades, which contrasts with Upper Palaeolitic Homo sapiens,who specialized in blade production.Many typical Upper Palaeolithic tools have been reported in Middle Palaeolithic inventories in low numbers [eg;perforators,burins,end scrapers;P Mellars, 1996].Numerous Upper Palaeolithic assemblages,which only contained a small percentage of the more than ninety tool types,were not significantly more complex than the Upper Palaeolithic stone tool inventories [G Clark,2006].
The Middle Neolithic was not a static period of Neanderthal technological and social innovation.Breda [1993] described six different Levallois techniques.The identification of ca 20 Mousterian lithic industry variants in Europe/western Asia indicates that there was a mosaic of intricate adapations to the complex,variable Mousterian assemblages over 200Ka [C Howell,1999].Components of the Mousterian were frequently found in association with Levallois reduction strategies,which initially emerged during the MIS 8 period or"possibly" marginally earlier.Neanderthals were continually adjusting their lithic technologies to fit their immediate requirements and to the availability of local raw materials.They had the ability to improvise and innovate.
Cut marks on 2496 bear bones [ca MIS 7/6 transition] at the Baiche-Saint-Vaast site in the vicinity of Arras northern France implies that Neanderthals hunted and skinned bears.They may not have had an adequate number of hunters at that time and place to efficiently capture animals that travelled in herds [Tuffreau,1993].The relatively complete skeleons of 86 reindeer were recovered at the Salzgitter-Lebenstedt site in a small river valley 50km SE of Hanover,Germany. the site was occupied ca 55.6-48.5Ka ago.Analysis of the fossil remains indicate that Neanderthals had devised an organized hunting strategy,which largely targeted prime adults during the autumn migration [S Gaudzinski,2000].Neanderthals appear to have generally concentrated on feral game that could be readily killed by the number of hunters at their disposal at a given time and place.
Neanderthal lithic industries were sporadically dynamic.They used the volumetric method of producing blanks during OIS 5e,which was prior to the arrival of modern humans in western Europe.Neanderthals scheduled resource exploitation with respect to raw material during the early Mousterian and then appear to have abandoned the practice [H Koshler,2006].It was later introduced to Europe by Homo Sapiens.A clay pit at Campitella quarry near Bucine in central Italy yielded 2 stone flakes covered with tar bark,which was used to haft artifacts.Faunal remains and stratigraphic analysis imply that the lithics date to the OIS 6 cold era.The birch bark pitch process needs a constant temperature greater than 800 degrees C,with largely anerobic conditions or the bark burns and no tar is produced [PMazza,2006].Hafting requires skill and forethought.
Less than 1%of the stone artifacts at the Mousterian Champ Grand site in central France were sourced from locales 250km distant in the Loire valley and Paris Basin [L Slimack,2001.At Madonna dell ‘Arma cave Neanderthals transported Jasper to the site from a considerable distance during OIS 5-3 [D Couche,2007].A number of ancient raw material procurement routes were established by Neanderthals and were later used extensively by modern humans.A perforated bone and wolf tooth with a flaked bone point [ca 100Ka] were recovered from a Repolosthohle site in Austria [Mellars,1996].
Post 80Ka new hunting strategies evolved,the rate of innovation/cultural change increased temporally and Neanderthals frequented a greater diversity of environmentsThe use of composite tools,pigments and symbolism became more common post 60Ka [M Langley,2006].Several intentionally modified wood bowls and scoopers were retrieved from Mousterian layers [ca 49-45Ka] at the Abric Romani site in Spain [Corbenell, 1992].Residue/use wear analysis at Quina,France,indicated that some implements were utilized to process plants/food and work bone/ivory [Hardy,2004].The manufacture of wood spears and hafting is inferred by the presence of an embedded Levallois point [ca 50ka] in the third cervical vertebrae of a wild ass at Umm El Tlet,Syria [Beda ,1999].B Hayden [1992] commented that it was easier to create a North American biface than to produce a Levallois point by direct hard and soft hammer precussion and that Neanderthals were skilled knappers.
There is minimal information about shelters in open air camps and caves.At Baume des Peyards cave the Neanderthals appear to have laid down stone pavers and erected a stone barrier to provide protection against the elements [H de Lumley,1971.A mammoth tusk structure with post holes and a hearth was identified at the entrance to Grotte Renne,Aray -sur-Cure,France [Farizy,1990].L Gourham [1994?] suggested that this structure might have had a roof.
Neanderthal burials and indications of artistic awareness are more common in regions,with abundant natural resources and denser population concentrations,where climatic conditions are favourable.A young,male Neanderthal skeleton was unearthed in a flexed position,with his head on a pillow of flint at Mouster,southern France.Feral cattle bones were scattered around him and his remains were sprinkled with ochre [D Shreeve,1985].Recour cave SW France contained the fossils of a young,Neanderthal male at one end of a large stone lined pit,that was divided by a lithic slab.The other half had brown bear bones [ca80?Ka] and Quina Mousterian type flint tools [E Bonifay,1961].An adult [ca70-65Ka at La Ferraisse, France was interred in a shallow pit,with a cylinder bone fragment that had 4 sets of parallel incisions [Defleur,1993].Neanderthal burials seem to have been the exception rather than the rule.
Evidence of artistic awareness among Neanderthals can be subject to interpretation..R Fink contends that a bear bone [pre-45Ka],with 4 holes,which was retrieved from the Divje Bebe cave in Slovenia,is a flute.Detractors claim that the perforations were made by animal teeth.The bone could have been used as a musical instrument,regardless of how the holes were created.A 10cm tall Neanderthal face [?] may have had bone splinters rammed through two holes to create eyes [?:P Bahn,2003].Oakley [1991] identified Acheulean hand axes,with centrally located fossils,which might imply a degree of artistic appreciation At Teera Amata considerable effort was expended to gather and process large quanties of black,yellow and red colouring material.To date no Neanderthal rock art has been positively identified [B Hayes,1993].It may have been used for body adornment or some other purpose [speculation].Peyrony [1934] recovered bone points,awls,oval "ochred"bone plaques and a bone with fine,incised,parallel lines and zigzags above a Neanderthal skeleton at La Ferraise,France.The significance of cup marks on the underside of a slab at a nearby child's grave has not been established.The Hungarian open air site,Tata [pre-70Ka],yielded a silicified mummulite,which was crossed at right angles by an engraved line on both sides forming "+" motifs,that are inscribed on the objects circular outline [Bednarik,2003b].There was also an ivory plaque,which was carefully separated from a mammoth molar, bevelled,shaped and rubbed with red ochre.The edge ware polish indicates long term use [Marshack,1989].
Caves and rock shelters in the Ligurian River valley of Italy provide evidence that Neanderthals exploited and consumed aquatic resources [J Hawkes,2006].Pollen traces on many Combe Grenal implements,France, suggests that they harvested aquatic flora from a stream below the site [J Reitner,2006].This was not a normal Neanderthal practice,but they had the ability to adapt to various environments.Analyses of dental calculus on the remains of Shanidar I [Iraq] and Spy I and Spy II [Belgium] revealed that Neanderthals consumed grass seeds,legumes,dates,water lilies and a diversity of other plants,which comprised an important component of their diet [A Henry,2010].Identification of appreciable charred fat in the remains of hearths at the Roc de Morsal and Peche- de- l'Adz 4 sites indicates that Neanderthals could cook meat.At Gotham cave in southern Iberia they ate rabbit,tortoise, mussels,dolphin and seal [C Finlayson,2008].The diversity of fauna and flora that they exploited increased temporally after 80Ka..
Neanderthals were intelligent indiviuals,who did not have the concentrations of population to cope with the large influxes of Homo sapiens.
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